Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb has been publishing Kinesiology - scientific journal in the field of general and applied kinesiology since 1971. From 1996 to 1999, it was published both in Croatian and English, and after 32nd volume in 2000 was printed as Kinesiology, only in English with extended abstract in Croatian language. There are original research articles, review articles, preliminary notes and technical articles written by Croatian and foreign authors who are accepted for publishing based on the positive reviews from prominent domestic and foreign reviewers. Kinesiology, also known as sports science, is scientific study of human movement on physiological, biomechanical, biochemical and psychological level. Studies of kinesiology also include motor control, health enhanching physical activity, orthopedics, strength and conditioning, sport psychology, methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy.
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology
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Acute effects of isoinertial training on countermovement jump performance in elite youth male basketball players
The aim of this study was to examine the acute effect of flywheel training on countermovement jump performance in elite youth male basketball players, by measuring jump height at the 1-minute, 3-minute and 5-minute post-training. Fifteen young, healthy, elite male athletes (age: 17.0 ± 1.0 years; height: 193.1 ± 7.3 cm; body mass: 83.6 ± 8.2 kg; BMI: 22.4 ± 1.7 kg/m²) participated in the study. The participants were randomly assigned to two groups, performing the experimental (PAPE) and control protocol in a crossover design. Both protocols included standardized warm-up and countermovement jumping, while the experimental protocol additionally involved flywheel training between the warm-up and jumping. The flywheel training consisted of the half-squat exercise in three sets of six maximal repetitions, with a flywheel inertia of 0.025 kg·m². The results showed no statistically significant differences in countermovement jump height at 1-minute, 3-minute and 5-minute post-intervention time points (p > .05). Such an outcome was expected at the first time point, due to the well-known dominance of fatigue over potentiation in the initial minutes following an activation exercise. However, the results obtained at the second and third time points were not consistent with previous findings. The absence of acute improvements is most likely attributable to the participants’ age, which contributes to increased susceptibility to central fatigue. Further research is needed to determine whether this type of training can acutely enhance countermovement jump height in young athletes.
postactivation potentiation, fatigue, flywheel training
Copyright (c) 2026 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Associations between physical fitness and mental toughness in competitive adolescent dance sport athletes
Mental toughness (MT) is considered a major contributing factor for performing at high level in competitive sporting events. Despite its importance, little evidence has examined the correlations between MT and physical fitness (PF). Since both constructs are equally important in sport, it is necessary to establish whether MT may be correlated with PF. Two-hundred and nineteen competitive adolescent dancers took part in the study (mean age: 16.8±1.4 years; height: 169.5±8.7 cm; weight: 61.4±9.2 kg; 58% girls). PF was assessed by the body mass index (body composition), standing broad jump (muscular fitness), sit-ups in 30 seconds (repetitive strength), 10x5 shuttle run (agility), sit-and-reach test (flexibility), and the 20-m shuttle run test (cardiorespiratory fitness). The Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) was used to evaluate MT. In boys, MT was positively correlated with standing broad jump (r = 0.54), sit-ups in 30 seconds (r = 0.56), the 20-m shuttle run test (r = 0.61) and the sit-and-reach test (r = 0.34) and negatively correlated with the 10x5 shuttle run test (r = -0.43). In girls, MT was also positively correlated with standing broad jump (r = 0.48), sit-ups in 30 seconds (r = 0.46), the 20-m shuttle run test (r = 0.53) and the sit-and-reach test (r = 0.30) and negatively correlated with the 10x5 shuttle run test (r = -0.32). Regardless of sex, no significant correlations between MT and body composition were observed (r = 0.12 in boys and 0.10 in girls). This study shows that PF parameters are correlated well with MT. This would suggest that both physical and psychological components need to be investigated to examine potential co-existence between them. Also, interventions aiming to enhance MT throughout PF are warranted.
Age Is a Poor Predictor of Maximal Strength in Competitive Powerlifters
Age-related declines in muscular strength are well-documented; however, less is known about the long-term trajectories of individuals engaged in consistent high-level resistance training. This study examined the relationship between age and maximal strength in competitive powerlifters with competition records spanning multiple decades. Data were obtained from 61 powerlifters (45 men, 16 women) who participated in events sanctioned by drug-tested federations and had results both before age 40 and after age 60. A total of 3,379 competition entries were analyzed. Changes in absolute and relative strength, as well as in individual lifts (squat, bench press, and deadlift), were assessed using linear regression. Age explained a modest proportion of variance across all metrics (0.4%–15.6%). Among men, significant annual declines were observed in deadlift (−0.33%), relative strength (−0.32%), and squat (−0.17%), with no significant changes in bench press or absolute strength. Among women, relative strength (−0.06%) and squat (−0.11%) showed small but significant declines, while bench press performance increased (+0.27%). The rate and pattern of decline were steeper in men. Additional differences were observed between lifts, with deadlift showing the steepest drop. Compared to non-athletic populations, the observed decline was substantially lower, indicating a protective effect of long-term resistance training. These findings suggest that chronological age alone is a poor predictor of strength decline among well-trained older adults. Moreover, the observed exercise- and gender-specific patterns underscore the need for stratified analyses in aging research. The small number of female participants limited statistical power, highlighting the importance of future studies with larger samples.
Coach humour styles and athlete commitment: A relational mediation model in team sport contexts
Humour, often viewed as a light-hearted communicative tool, carries important relational significance in elite sport. Affiliative humour has the potential to build trust and cohesion, whereas aggressive humour may threaten relational safety and undermine athlete engagement. While humour has been widely studied in organizational psychology, its implications in sport coaching remain underexplored. This study examined how athletes’ perceptions of coaches’ humour styles influence motivational commitment through the mediating mechanisms of relationship quality—closeness, commitment, and complementarity—guided by Humour Styles Theory, the 3+1 Cs Model, and the Sport Commitment Model. Participants were 341 athletes (aged 18-35) from five team sports in Türkiye. Measures assessed perceptions of coaches’ affiliative and aggressive humour, coach-athlete relationship quality, and two forms of sport commitment: enthusiastic and constraint commitment. Regression-based mediation analyses tested indirect effects of humour styles on commitment through relational dimensions. Results indicated that affiliative humour was positively associated with enthusiastic commitment, fully mediated by athletes’ perceptions of commitment and complementarity, but not by closeness. In contrast, aggressive humour predicted lower levels of enthusiastic commitment, both directly and indirectly through weakened perceptions of commitment and complementarity. Neither humour style showed significant associations with constraint commitment. These findings suggest that affiliative humour strengthens athletes’ motivation by reinforcing task-relevant relational dynamics, whereas aggressive humour undermines them. In performance-driven contexts, functional alignment may be more influential than emotional closeness. Coach education programmes should therefore encourage the intentional use of affiliative humour as a relational strategy to sustain athlete engagement and long-term commitment. Keywords: coach-athlete relationship, humour styles, sport commitment, constraint commitment, enthusiastic commitment. Keywords: coach–athlete relationship; humor styles; sport commitment; constraint commitment; enthusiastic commitment
Coach–Athlete Relationship, Humor Styles, Sport Commitment, Constraint Commitment, Enthusiastic Commitment
Effects of resistance exercise involving different intra-set rest distributions on muscular performance, metabolic, hormonal and cardiovascular responses in resistance-trained men: a randomized crossover study
This study compared the acute effects of traditional (TRD) and two intra-set rest resistance exercise (RE) structures—cluster sets (CLS) and inter-repetition rest sets (IRS)—on muscular performance, cardiovascular responses, metabolic and perceptual fatigue, and endocrine markers in resistance-trained men. Ten participants (age: 31±7.3 years; training experience: 5.1±2.3 years) completed six RE sessions involving three bilateral knee extension sets of 10 repetitions at 70% 1RM. Sessions were randomized and separated by ≥5 days. Each protocol (CLS, IRS, TRD) was performed twice—once for performance outcomes (maximum number of repetitions [MNR], total load lifted [TLL]) and once for physiological measures (blood lactate, rating of fatigue [ROF], growth hormone [GH], insulin-like growth factor 1 [IGF-1], heart rate [HR], blood pressure [BP], and rate-pressure product [RPP]). No significant condition × time interactions were observed for cardiovascular measures (BP, HR, RPP, all p>0.05), and area under the curve analysis showed no significant differences between protocols. Both CLS and IRS yielded significantly higher MNR and TLL versus TRD (p<0.05). Post-exercise lactate and ROF were highest in TRD and lowest in IRS (p<0.05). GH increased significantly immediately post-exercise in all protocols (p<0.001), with no between-group differences. IGF-1 increased non-significantly post-exercise and declined toward baseline after 30 minutes. Intra-set rest strategies (i.e., CLS and IRS) seems to improve acute performance and reduce fatigue without elevating cardiovascular stress beyond traditional configurations. These strategies are effective for maximizing training output while managing GH secretion, blood lactate changes, and perceptual fatigue in resistance-trained men.
Small-sided games in rugby union training: A narrative review
Small-sided games (SSGs) have gained prominence in rugby union training due to their potential to simultaneously develop players’ physical, technical, and tactical capacities. However, a comprehensive understanding of how SSGs are structured and applied remains limited. This narrative review aimed to identify and analyze studies that implemented SSGs in rugby union training, focusing on game formats, participant characteristics, and training outcomes. A literature search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and SciELO databases up to March 2025. Sixteen studies published between 2012 and 2024 met the inclusion criteria. Data extraction was performed independently by two reviewers using a structured coding framework, and findings were synthesized narratively due to the heterogeneity of studies’ designs and outcomes. Results revealed considerable variation in SSG designs regarding the number of players (1v1 to 12v12), pitch dimensions (15×12 m to 100×70 m), and contact rules (touch, tackle, or non-contact). SSGs with fewer players and larger fields were associated with greater physical and perceptual demands. Technical and tactical benefits were also observed, particularly when SSGs were pedagogically adapted to the athletes’ experience and developmental level. Nonetheless, most studies involved adult male or elite players, highlighting a gap in research with female and youth categories. Furthermore, few studies examined how contact rules influenced training outcomes. Future investigations should include more diverse populations and explore how constraint manipulations affect game representativeness and skill acquisition in rugby union. Keywords: sort, SSG, training
Inertial movement demands comparison between winning and losing quarters in youth basketball players
The aim of the present study was to compare relative external load demands between winning and losing quarters, as well as the magnitude of scoreboard differences in these quarters (close, balanced, and unbalanced) in basketball players. Data were collected from 11 male basketball players Under 18 on the same team during 21 official games over two competitive seasons. External load demands for each quarter were recorded using microsensors to derive values for the following variables: PlayerLoad (PL), frequency of total and high-intensity accelerations (ACC), jumps, decelerations (DEC), changes of direction (COD) and total inertial movement analysis (IMA) events combined. All variables were normalized relative to players` game minutes (∙min-1). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey post-hoc tests were used to test statistical significance (p <.05), and standardized Cohen’s effect size was calculated to evaluate the differences between winning and losing quarters. Additionally, differences among game quarters were also analysed. For all variables, statistically non-significant differences (p>0.05) with unclear-small effects were found between winning and losing game quarters. Furthermore, based on quarter score differences, only small, statistically significant differences were observed between close and balanced quarters for total IMA and total COD during losing quarters. In conclusion, winning and losing quarters, as well as the magnitude of the score within the quarter, resulted in similar external load demands in terms of total and high intensity actions. A variety of contextual factors (opposing team level, game plan or scoreboard dynamics) may explain team success rather than individual players demands.
Taekwondo Kicks at the Center of Biomechanical Research: Systematic Review
Taekwondo is an Olympic martial art that emphasizes complex kicking techniques that require meticulous biomechanical execution. This systematic review aims at combining the available literature on the kinematic and kinetic features of Taekwondo kicks to understand the biomechanics of the technique, and training implications of kicks. A comprehensive search was done in the PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases and all the studies identified were evaluated against the PRISMA guidelines. The studies to be included in the review had to be experimental method and be published in scientific peer-reviewed articles, focusing on the biomechanics of Taekwondo kicks, and had to be from the post-1996 period. 294 articles were identified, and after a detailed screening process, 86 studies met the criteria. Dollyo Chagi had the highest rotational dynamics, which makes power and speed important, while the Yeop Chagi showed how mass can be efficiently utilized to produce force. Ap Chagi used a proximal-to-distal energy transfer mechanism to achieve the most efficient energy transfer. Additional factors that were effective in the performance were gender, fatigue, and training; joints and muscles also coordinated and activated differently. This review confirms the importance of biomechanics in the execution of Taekwondo kicking techniques. It determines energy transfer, joint coordination, and muscle activation as crucial factors that describe the performance and highlights the need for future studies on underinvested techniques and methodologies. These findings are useful for athletes and coaches who want to improve their technical performance and lower their risk of getting injured.
Effect of flywheel eccentric overload training on athletic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis
This study aims to assess the effects of resistance training using flywheel devices—hereafter referred to as flywheel eccentric overload training (FEOT)—compared to conventional resistance training (including external-load resistance training and bodyweight training) on athletic performance, providing theoretical guidance and practical foundations for the scientific development of diverse training regimens. Randomized controlled trials on FEOT interventions (up to January 2024) from five Chinese/English databases were analyzed using Review Manager 5.3 and Stata-SE 15 for meta-analysis, subgroup analysis, and bias assessment. A total of 21 articles were included in this study (14 high-quality, seven moderate-quality based on the methodological assessment). The results of the meta-analysis revealed that, compared to the conventional resistance training, FEOT significantly outperformed in countermovement jump (CMJ; SMD=0.60, 95% CI: 0.2 to 0.95, p<.05), change-of-direction performance (COD; SMD=-1.23, 95% CI: -1.89 to -0.57, p<.05), and short-distance sprint performance (SMD=-0.58, 95% CI: -0.89 to -0.23, p<.05). Subgroup analysis revealed: 1) Compared to the external-load resistance training, FEOT improved CMJ (SMD=0.56, 95% CI: 0.13 to 0.99, p<.05), short-distance sprinting (SMD=-0.61, 95% CI: -0.95 to -0.27, p<.05), and COD (SMD=-1.34, 95% CI: -2.38 to -0.30, p<.05), but not 1RM strength (SMD=0.30, 95% CI: -0.50 to 1.10, p>.05). 2) Versus the bodyweight training, FEOT improved CMJ (SMD=0.77, 95% CI: 0.25 to 1.29, p<.05) and COD (SMD=-1.16, 95% CI: -2.02 to -0.30, p<.05), but not short-distance sprinting (SMD=-0.31, 95% CI: -1.47 to 0.86, p>.05). Our conclusions are: 1) compared with the conventional resistance training, FEOT yields greater improvements in CMJ, COD, and short-sprint performance and 2) FEOT outperforms external-load resistance training across CMJ, COD, and short-sprint outcomes, and shows clear advantages over bodyweight training in CMJ and COD, supporting its value as an effective strategy for enhancing explosive lower-limb performance. Keywords: flywheel training; eccentric overload; athletic performance; external-load resistance training; bodyweight training
Exploring physical literacy, physical activity levels, and cardiorespiratory fitness in children with probable movement difficulties: a comparative study
A significant percentage of school-aged children experience movement difficulties, negatively affecting various aspects of their daily lives. This study aimed to examine perceived physical literacy, physical activity, and cardiorespiratory fitness of children with probable movement difficulties and compare these parameters with typically developing peers. Ninety-seven children aged 11-12 years (M=11.57± .49 years) participated voluntarily. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children Checklist-2 was used to identify children with probable movement difficulties. The Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children, the 20-meter Run Test, and the Physical Literacy for Children-Questionnaire were used to assess cardiorespiratory fitness, physical activity, and physical literacy, respectively. Results revealed that 16.5% of the participants exhibited probable movement difficulties, while 15.5% had poor motor competence. These children demonstrated statistically significantly lower levels of physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and perceived physical literacy (particularly in physical and psychological domains) compared to their typically developing peers. The above findings highlight the significant role of motor competence in perceived physical literacy, physical activity, and cardiorespiratory fitness and underscore the need for timely identification of possible motor competence deficits and implementation of tailored movement programs aiming at children’s holistic development.
Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children
Physical Literacy for Children-Questionnaire
Effects of SAQ, HIIT, and SSG training on sprint and COD performance in soccer players: A pairwise and network meta-analysis
The objective was to systematically compare the effects of speed, agility, and quickness (SAQ) training, high-intensity interval training (HIIT), and small-sided games (SSG) training on sprint and change of direction (COD) performance in soccer players through pairwise and network meta-analyses. A comprehensive search of five electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Cochrane, and EBSCO) was conducted during June 2025 to identify controlled trials involving SAQ, HIIT, or SSG training interventions. Studies meeting predefined eligibility criteria underwent pairwise meta-analysis (PMA) to calculate standardized mean differences (SMDs) against control conditions, and network meta-analysis (NMA) to estimate comparative efficacy across all three modalities. Surface under the cumulative ranking (SUCRA) values were computed to establish an intervention hierarchy. Twenty-three studies involving 914 participants were included. Pairwise meta-analysis (PMA) results showed that, compared with the control groups, only SAQ training significantly improved sprint (SMD = –1.23, 95% CI: –1.85 to –0.60, p<.001) and COD performance (SMD = –1.09, 95% CI: –1.69 to –0.48, p<.001). In network meta-analysis (NMA), SAQ ranked highest for sprint performance (SUCRA = 98.2%), followed by conventional training (CT) (57.0%), HIIT (36.7%), and SSG (8.1%). For COD performance, HIIT (SUCRA = 67.3%) ranked highest, followed by SSG (65.9%), SAQ (63.1%) and CT (3.7%). SAQ training demonstrated the most robust enhancement of sprint speed among the examined modalities. Although direct comparisons indicated benefits of SAQ for COD performance, its superiority was not confirmed in the network analysis, likely due to limited head-to-head data and study heterogeneity. A training strategy centered on SAQ, with supplemental HIIT and SSG components, is therefore recommended to optimize both sprint and COD adaptations in soccer players. PROSPERO: CRD42024583586 Keywords: football; SAQ; HIIT; SSG; meta-analysis
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN LOWER EXTREMITY KINEMATICS AND HORIZONTAL JUMP PERFORMANCE
This study investigates the correlation between lower extremity anthropometric parameters and the quadriceps angle in relation to horizontal jump performance in healthy young adults. Ninety-six healthy young adults (52 females and 44 males, aged 18-30 years), participating in no regular sports activity, were included. Measurements of lower extremity length, thigh length, leg length, foot length, hip circumference, and waist circumference were taken in centimeters using a non-elastic tape measure in an upright position. The quadriceps angle was measured with a goniometer, and horizontal jump performance was assessed via the standing broad jump test. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 29.00. A significant negative correlation was found between the quadriceps angle (both legs) and hip circumference, waist circumference, foot length, and horizontal jump distance. The quadriceps angle of the right leg also negatively correlated with lower extremity, thigh, and leg lengths. Horizontal jump distance positively correlated with lower extremity, thigh, leg, and foot lengths. Longer lower extremity, thigh, leg, and foot lengths enhance horizontal jump performance, while an increased quadriceps angle reduces it. These results highlight the quadriceps angle as a critical factor in horizontal jump performance, warranting further research. Keywords: anthropometry, quadriceps angle, standing broad jump test
Copyright (c) 2025 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF THE MEDICINE BALL THROW TEST IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS
The purpose of this study was to investigate the evidence regarding the reliability and validity of the medicine ball throw test when applied to children and adolescents. Systematic search was conducted in four electronic databases (Scopus, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and MEDLINE/PubMed) from their inception until November 2024. The meta-analysis of relative inter-session reliability synthesized data from nine studies using the intraclass correlation coefficient (n=293) and identified good test-retest reliability for the medicine ball throw test (ICC: 0.80; 95%CI [0.72-0.86]). When analysed separately, the standing chest medicine ball throw test (four studies; n=129) demonstrated fair test-retest reliability (ICC: 0.72; 95%CI [0.58-0.83]), while the seated chest medicine ball throw test (three studies; n=193) exhibited good test-retest reliability (ICC: 0.84; 95%CI [0.48-0.96]). Only three studies examined the relationship between the medicine ball throw test and other fitness measures. Various protocols are used to administer the medicine ball throw test in children and adolescents, with the seated chest medicine ball throw test proving to be particularly reliable due to its strong relative reliability. Although the medicine ball throw test demonstrates acceptable reliability, the limited investigation into its validity, particularly criterion validity, hinders definitive protocol recommendations. Keywords: evaluation, explosive power, field test, fitness, reproducibility
ALEXITHYMIA AND INJURY ANXIETY PREDICT INJURY RECOVERY
This study examined the relationship between alexithymia, sport injury anxiety, and injury recovery outcomes in athletes. A sample of 57 high-performance athletes (30 female) completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale, Sport Injury Anxiety Scale, and Return to Sport after Serious Injury Questionnaire. Multiple regression analysis showed that difficulties in identifying feelings (a component of alexithymia), and sport injury anxiety significantly predicted negative recovery outcomes (return concerns), together explaining 27.7% of variance. However, neither alexithymia nor injury anxiety predicted positive recovery outcomes (renewed perspective), and both were unrelated to injury risk. The prevalence of alexithymia in this sample was approximately 20%, which is notably higher than general population estimates (~10%). This study provides preliminary evidence that emotion-related traits like alexithymia and contextual anxiety measures may play important roles in sport injury recovery processes, highlighting potential targets for psychological intervention during rehabilitation. Keywords: sport injury, return to sport, emotion, personality, high-performance athletes, retrospective assessment
THE INFLUENCE OF EXPLOSIVE LOWER LIMB PERFORMANCE, MUSCLE MASS, AND TRAINING EXPERIENCE ON OLYMPIC WEIGHTLIFTING PERFORMANCE
Background: Power, muscle mass, and training experience are considered critical factors in determining Olympic weightlifting performance, yet most studies have focused on single performance levels (such as elite-level athletes) or on only one or two of these performance factors. This study aimed to provide a more holistic analysis of these determinants by evaluating their influence across three performance levels: fitness-based weightlifting, competitive weightlifting, and national team athletes. Methods: Twenty-nine weightlifters (16 males, 13 females) participated, with performance assessed via the Sinclair Score. Power was measured using countermovement jump (CMJ) height on a force plate, muscle mass was evaluated via bioelectrical impedance analysis, and training experience was calculated as a function of years, weeks, and weekly sessions. Results: Multiple regression analysis identified CMJ height as the strongest predictor of the Sinclair Score, followed by training experience, while muscle mass showed no significant influence. The model accounted for 66.7% of the variance in Sinclair Scores, highlighting power and training experience as key performance drivers. Conclusion: These findings suggest that training programs should prioritize power development and training frequency to optimize weightlifting outcomes, while muscle mass appears to play a lesser role.
ATHLETICS COACHES EXPERIENCING COOPERATIVE LEARNING FOR THE FIRST TIME: A QUALITATIVE STUDY
As cooperative learning (CL) is not yet well researched and widely used in competitive youth sport, we aimed to gather coaches’ experiences of CL to evaluate and promote its suitability for use in kids’ athletics. Four track-and-field coaches from Slovenia who coached mixed youth athletics groups were interviewed after conducting 30 training sessions with CL according to the experimental programme. In addition, the coaches wrote a reflective analysis after each session. The coaches’ responses from the interview and the reflections were analysed using thematic analysis and constant comparison. Three themes were identified: (a) roles in the pedagogical process, (b) interpersonal and small-group skills, and (c) transition to CL and related challenges. The coaches developed very positive attitude towards CL and group work in general. They reported that children acquired various interpersonal and small-group skills, which helped them in peer teaching and learning. The most difficult part was the beginning, as the children were not able to cooperate with their peers. Later on, the athletes were active learners and very confident in taking on different roles, including the role of the tutor. Because of this, the coaches’ role changed tremendously. Nevertheless, the coaches felt important in guiding the learners to the desired knowledge. CL is very effective in improving children’s learning in kids’ athletics and is also well accepted by Slovenian track-and-field coaches. However, we would suggest combining it with other pedagogical models. In addition, coaches would need additional training in CL to be able to decide which learning objectives should be targeted with which approach. Keywords: pedagogical model, roles, peer teaching, autonomy, youth sport
MATCH PEAK SPEED ACROSS A SOCCER SEASON: THE INFLUENCE OF PLAYING POSITION, COMPETITION, MATCH OUTCOME, AND MATCH LOCATION
This study compared match peak speeds (MPS) across a full season considering different playing positions, competitions, match outcomes, and match locations. Thirty-one elite male soccer players were monitored during matches using global navigation satellite system devices. Independent mean differences [95% confidence intervals] were calculated for the investigated variable (MPS). Fullbacks reached higher MPS than central defenders (CD) (d=0.78 [0.56, 1.00]), central midfielders (CM) (d=-0.75 [-0.93, -0.57]) and forwards (d=-0.32 [-0.55, -0.08]); wide midfielders reached higher MPS than CD (d=0.66 [0.43, 0.90]) and CM (d=0.64 [0.45, 0.84]); and forwards reached higher MPS than CD (d=0.46 [0.22, 0.71]) and CM (d=0.41 [0.21, 0.62]). Higher MPS were reached during the National League than the National Cup (d=-0.38 [-0.58, -0.19]) and the Supercup (d=-0.57 [-1.09, -0.06]); higher MPS were reached during the State Cup than the National Cup (d=-0.32 [-0.55, -0.09]) and the Supercup (d=-0.57 [-1.12, -0.05]); and higher MPS were reached during the International Cup than the National Cup (d=0.26 [0.04, 0.48]). Higher MPS were reached during matches lost than won (d=0.19 [0.03, 0.35]). Playing position was the highest differentiator of MPS across a soccer season, underlining the importance of players’ individualization when assessing MPS or when calculating normalized speed thresholds. MPS can also vary between competitions, especially if teams face lower division teams. Keywords: contextual factors, football, outcome, sprint, velocity
MODERN EVOLUTIONARY CHANGES IN FIELD GOAL SHOOTING PATTERNS WITHIN PROMINENT EUROPEAN BASKETBALL LEAGUES
The aims of this study were to identify the evolution of field goal shooting trends within leading European basketball leagues, and the subsequent impact of a change in 3-point line distance on these trends, providing valuable information for coaches and strategists. Data were collected from the 2002-2003 to the 2022-2023 season (21 seasons) from the prominent basketball leagues of Spain, Italy, France, and Greece. The analyzed variables were: 2-point field goals made (2PM), 2-point field goal attempts (2PA), 2-point field goal percentage (2P%), 3-point field goals made (3PM), 3-point field goal attempts (3PA), and 3-point field goal percentage (3P%). One-way repeated-measures ANOVA or Friedman’s test were used to determine evolutionary changes in variables over time. Additionally, comparisons between variables before and after the change in 3-point line distance were also conducted via independent t-tests. Over the past 21 seasons, 3PA and 3PM significantly increased from an average of 20.80 to 25.17 per match. In contrast, 2PA, 2PM, 2P% and 3P% remained unchanged during the same period. Following the change in distance of the 3-point line, 3PA and 3PM increased over 5%, while no change in 3P%, 2PA, 2PM and 2P%. Over the past 21 seasons, there were substantial increases in 3PA and 3PM, especially since the change in 3-point line distance in 2010-2011, without changes in 2-point shooting trends and efficiency (i.e., 2P%, 3P%), within the leading basketball leagues of Europe. Collectively, these results demonstrated substantial evolutionary change in 3-point shooting behavior, requiring offensive and defensive upskilling of athletes and coaches for successful match-play, and potentially informing the development of new training paradigms in modern basketball. Keywords: trend analysis, match outcomes, males, scoring, team sport
VERTICAL OR HORIZONTAL FORCE-VELOCITY PROFILE: WHICH ONE IS MORE SENSITIVE TO DETECT THE FATIGUE INDUCED BY A BASKETBALL-SEPCIFIC PROTOCOL?
This study aimed to determine which task (jumping or sprinting) and which force-velocity (F-V) relationship parameter (maximal force [F0], maximal velocity [v0], or maximal power [Pmax]) is the most sensitive indicator of fatigue induced by a basketball-specific protocol. Following a familiarization session, 19 junior male basketball players completed an experimental session in which both vertical (jumping) and horizontal (sprinting) F-V profiles were measured before, during and after undergoing a basketball-specific fatigue protocol (modified version of the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test). All F-V relationship parameters, except horizontal F0 (p = .328), were significantly reduced after fatigue (p ≤ .042). The vertical Pmax (ES = -0.48 to -0.80), horizontal Pmax (ES = -0.58 to -1.28), and horizontal v0 (ES = -0.81 to -0.98) showed larger reductions compared to the pre-fatigue assessment than the vertical v0 (ES = -0.19 to -0.27), vertical F0 (ES = -0.16 to -0.25), and horizontal F0 (ES = -0.11 to -0.30). When the percentage changes with respect to the pre-fatigue assessment were compared between the jumping and sprinting tasks, no significant differences in their magnitude (p ≥ .364) and trivial to small correlations (-0.23 ≤ r ≤ 0.19) were detected. The results suggest that Pmax is the most suitable parameter to detect fatigue following a basketball-specific fatigue protocol, while the lack of significant correlations for the changes in F-V relationship parameters highlight the importance of measuring both the vertical and horizontal F-V profiles to gain comprehensive understanding of the changes in the mechanical properties of lower-body muscles following fatigue protocols. Keywords: jump; monitoring; sprint; team sport; testing
Effects of a 12-week supervised resistance training on quality of life and physical fitness in older adults: A randomized controlled trial
The main aim of the study was to examine the effects of a 12-week resistance training (RT) programme on HRQoL scores and physical fitness components. One hundred and fourteen older adults aged between 60 and 70 years were recruited (mean ± SD; age = 66.2 ± 3.0 years; 48.2% women) and randomly assigned to RT (n = 57; age = 66.0 ± 2.9 years; 48.5% women) or control (CON; n = 57; age = 66.4 ± 3.1 years; 47.9% women) groups. Baseline and follow-up data included Health-related Quality of Life (HRQoL) questionnaire, and Senior Fitness Test. No significant differences in outcome variables between the two groups were observed (p>.05). After a 12-week intervention, RT group improved physical (80.5%, ES = 4.7), psychological (60.2%, ES = 3.0), social (39.1%, ES = 1.5), and environmental (51.7%, ES = 3.9) components of HRQoL. Over the 12 weeks, RT group decreased body-mass index (-9.7%, ES = -0.4), fat mass percentage (-11.4%, ES = -0.6), and visceral fat (-17.2%, ES = -0.8) and increased muscle mass percentage (13.2%, ES = 1.0), muscular (20.9% and 12.4%, ES = 0.7 and 0.4) and cardiorespiratory fitness (7.2%, ES = 0.2), flexibility (62.5% and 34.6%, ES = 0.3), and agility (-14.8%, ES = -1.0). No significant time changes in the CON group were observed. A 12-week RT programme increases HRQoL and overall physical performance in older adults, making RT an effective intervention method for improving broad-spectrum HRQoL and physical fitness components. Keywords: geriatrics; intervention; physical performance; quality of life; strength training
Psychometric characteristics of the Serbian version of the European Health Interview Survey-Physical Activity Questionnaire - EHIS-PAQ
The European Health Interview Survey-Physical Activity Questionnaire (EHIS-PAQ) has been specially developed for gathering data on physical activity for the production of public health statistics in Europe and the calculation of European Core Health Indicators. The aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Serbian version of the EHIS-PAQ. This was a secondary analysis of data from the Serbian National Health Survey from 2019, which included a total of 15621 participants. The psychometric properties of the EHIS-PAQ were examined using the exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA). EFA showed the existence of three factors. Factor loadings varied from 0.515 to 0.941. The EFA showed three factors that explain 55.02% of the variance. CFA showed that AGFI was 0.958, GFI was 0.977, CFI was 0.958, and RMSEA was 0.063 (95% CI: 0.056-0.069). The Serbian version of the EHIS-PAQ showed good construct validity and can be used as a convenient measurement for population physical activity.
ATTACKING PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS DURING 2-MINUTE SUSPENSIONS IN FEMALE HANDBALL GAMES AT THE RIO 2016 OLYMPIC GAMES
The aim of this study was to analyse the effect of the IHF 2016 rule change on attack efficacy during the different numerical asymmetry scenarios associated with 2-minute suspensions at the Rio 2016 OG. A total of 328 exclusion scenarios that were sanctioned during the 38 matches played at the Rio 2016 OG female handball tournament by 12 national teams were analysed using observational methodology. Chi-square test was applied to identify associations between the variables. Chi-square automatic interaction detection trees (CHAID) were used to identify which attacking performance variables during exclusions were associated with the different types of numerical asymmetry (superiority, inferiority with the goalkeeper at goal and inferiority with the empty net). Results during contexts of superiority showed that scoring in 58.0% of the total attacking finalizations (i.e., attack efficacy) (p<.001; ASR 8.2); playing fast transitions (p<.001; x2 = 17.692) and using a 2:4 (with two pivots) offensive system were predictors of the attacking performance of the teams. Substitution of the goalkeeper for a court player during inferiority context was a predictor for teams ranked 9 to 12 and also for those playing for medals (p<.001; x2=26.590) but conceding, as a consequence of their finalizations, a counterattack (p<.001; x2=112.107). Despite teams showing similar attacking performance during numerical superiority compared to previous studies, findings in this study revealed a tendency for empty goals during numerical inferiority context. Coaches should therefore consider training retreat strategies when playing without a goalkeeper when faced with a numerical disadvantage. Key words: exclusions, numerical inequality, empty goal, classification tree, offensive performance in elite handball
PARKOUR PRACTITIONERS’ TRAINING HABITS, MOTIVES, GOALS AND PERCEIVED PERFORMANCE FACTORS: AN INTERNATIONAL APPROACH
This study aimed to describe frequent parkour practitioners’ training habits, training motives and goals, and perceived performance factors of practitioners from different countries and continents. An ad hoc questionnaire (PARK-Q) was developed in four languages by the research group and validated by active experts with 12-18 years of experience practising and coaching parkour. The PARK-Q is a multidimensional questionnaire that explores demographics, habits, goals, motivation and perceived performance factors from the practitioner’s perspective. The PARK-Q presented overall great internal consistency (Cronbach’s α=.902) and was answered by one hundred and forty-one parkour practitioners (N=141, 26.2±5.0 years old) from 15 countries and four continents. Parkour could still be considered a masculine action sport with a low level of federated participation, mostly practised outdoors, with friends, in an unstructured way, and learnt freely: with friends, autodidact, etc. Parkour practitioners’ motivation mainly comes from within and could be considered intrinsic motivation. To parkour practitioners, precision, environmental adaptability, and movement techniques may be considered the most important performance factors, whereas flip repertoire, suffering capacity, and keeping yourself distracted are the least important. Thus, new measuring instruments or assessments that align better with the discipline should be explored, considering the performance factors perceived by international parkour practitioners. Keywords: art du déplacement, freerunning, questionnaire, measuring instrument, training
EFFECTS OF A WEB-BASED NEED-SUPPORTIVE INTERVENTION PROGRAM ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHER OUTCOMES
Interventions aimed at enhancing need-supportive behaviours have predominantly focused on assessing their effects on student outcomes, thereby placing comparatively less emphasis on gains experienced by teachers. This study investigated whether a web-based need-supportive intervention programme for physical education (PE) teachers would also provide significant gains in enhancing PE teachers need-supportive behaviours, psychological need satisfaction, intrinsic motivation to teach, teaching efficacy and reducing their controlling behaviours. Participants were 74 PE teachers (54 women). Their average age was 46.04 years (SD = 12.64), and they had an average teaching experience of 17.33 years (SD = 13.83). Participants were allocated into experimental and control conditions. PE teachers in the experimental group completed a four-week web-based need-supportive intervention programme. Results demonstrated that the experimental group PE teachers demonstrated significant gains in their autonomy support, competence support and teaching efficacy compared to the control group PE teachers within a one-month follow-up. These results suggest that our web-based need-supportive intervention programme for PE teachers was partially effective to produce gains for PE teachers themselves. Key words: autonomy support, competence support, relatedness support, controlling behaviour, motivation, teaching efficacy
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STRENGTH TRAINING TO REDUCE BIOMECHANICAL RISK FACTORS FOR ACL INJURIES IN ATHLETES: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW AND META–ANALYSIS
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries can significantly affect an athlete’s ability to participate in sport, emphasizing the importance of prevention strategies to mitigate knee impairments. Strength training has been shown to enhance landing mechanics during sidestepping and jumping, movements often linked to ACL injuries. This systematic review with meta-analysis investigated the effects of strength training on biomechanical risk factors for ACL injuries in athletes. After searching trials up to May 4, 2022, eight articles were included. The articles included in the study seemed to be limited to female athletes who participated in sports that required cutting, jumping, or pivoting. Due to the heterogeneity of the included studies, only three articles (78 participants) could be included in the meta-analysis. The results from the meta-analysis suggest that strength training may favor lower ACL stress as it is correlated with an increased landing knee flexion angle during drop vertical jump. The data are limited, however, and the literature remains sparce in quality and number. This review exposes the need for a deeper understanding of how strengthening influences landing mechanics, reduces knee overload, and decreases the risk of ACL injuries. Future research should focus on standardizing the evaluation of ACL injury-related movements, including the definition of biomechanical outcomes, training interventions, and functional tasks for measurements. Strengthening of pelvic, core and lower body muscles 2-3 times per week seems to lower the ACL injuries risk. Keywords: ACL injuries, strength training, biomechanical risk factors
EFFECTS OF TWO PSYCHOMOTOR PROGRAMMES BASED ON DIFFERENT LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT
The aim of the study was to analyse the effect of two motor intervention programmes, based on two different learning environments, on relevant dimensions in early childhood education: motor development, language development, mathematical thinking, motivation, and character. The research was conducted as a pilot study with children aged 4-5 years, based on a quasi-experimental group comparison design with pretest and post-test. The learning environment of the first group (n = 26) was based on Colombian legends, while the learning environment of the second group (n = 18) was based on the teacher’s playful pedagogical project. For data collection a sociodemographic data record sheet, the Utrecht and TEPSI tests, and the EMAPI were used. The results showed improvements in both groups in the explored dimensions, with the most significant changes occurring in the group whose learning environment was based on the teacher’s playful pedagogical project. These results confirm that motor intervention programmes in Physical Education have a positive impact on child development in early childhood education. Keywords: Physical Education, language development, mathematical thinking development, motivation, early childhood education
THE EFFECTS OF OPPOSITION ON COLLECTIVE AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOURS IN SOCCER: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Opposition in soccer is a determining factor for the success of collective and individual actions that are performed by the players to solve the problems of the game. Many studies studied the opposition in official matches and training and its impact on the dimensions of soccer. However, no previous review organised the literature about the effects of the opposition in soccer training. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to verify: i) the effects of the opposition on individual and collective behaviours in soccer training; ii) how was the level of the opposition established during training; and iii) how the variables were analysed and instruments utilized to measure those effects. The PRISMA guidelines were used to search five databases for relevant publications before 10th April 2023. The population was soccer players, and the outcome was any variable related to the tactical, technical, physical, and/or psychological dimension. In the end, there were thirteen studies included. Overall, the main results pointed out two ways to establish the opposition in soccer training: numerical relations and through teams’ composition according to players’ individual characteristics. Moreover, it is possible to affect soccer’s tactical, technical, and physical dimensions by establishing the opposition in different ways. Manipulating the opposition through numerical relationships can facilitate the exchange of passes and maintenance of ball possession, in the offensive phase, and generate greater commitment in attempts to recover possession of the ball in the defensive phase. Regarding the individual characteristics of the players, the effects of the opposition depend mainly on the variable used in organising the teams. Key words: football, training sessions, small-sided games, decision-making, tactics
VARIABLES USED FOR TALENT IDENTIFICATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN SOCCER: A SCOPING REVIEW
Talent identification and development in youth soccer are complex and multidimensional processes. This scoping review aimed to explore the current literature regarding the variables used in the talent identification and development process in soccer. This study was developed referring to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. Pubmed, Web of Science and Scopus databases were searched from September to October 2023. Only peer-reviewed journal articles published in English were included, with no limitation regarding the publication year. Through the initial search 774 records were identified and 190 articles met the inclusion criteria. The main finding was that most studies assessed speed (52.1%), maturity (42.1%), lower limbs strength (40.5%), aerobic capacity (35.8%), agility (32.6%), technical skills (16.8%), and tactical skills (14.2%). Male athletes were investigated in 162 studies (85.3%), whereas seven studies (3.7%) were conducted with females only, and seven articles (3.7%) with males and females. Fourteen studies (7.4%) did not specify the sex of the participants. In conclusion, findings indicate that physical performance and maturity factors are the most investigated variables regarding talent identification and development in soccer. This review highlights the importance of considering physical performance tests and technical/tactical skills, along with maturity status assessment, as key tools in talent identification programs. Current talent identification practices in soccer may benefit from a more balanced approach that includes physical, technical, tactical, maturational, and psychological assessments to capture a broader range of player potential. Key words: young athletes, football, talent, youth development
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT CUTTING TECHNIQUES ON CHANGE OF DIRECTION SPEED IN TEAM HANDBALL
Change of direction (COD) actions play a crucial role in team handball performance. Achieving equal speed during specific cutting manoeuvres on the left and right side is believed to be advantageous for successful tactical behaviour. Although studies have investigated lateral disparities in movements towards and against the throwing arm, there is a lack of sport-specific evidence regarding the advantages and disadvantages of different cutting techniques in terms of direction and speed. This study aimed to explore the impact of technique on COD speed with the ball during team handball-specific cutting maneuvers. Change of direction speed was evaluated and compared under three conditions: (1) split-step technique, (2) side-step technique, and (3) individually preferred skill. A total of 19 male, active, injury-free team handball players (mean age 21.59 ± 2.60 years) with an average of 15.26 ± 4.33 years of team handball experience participated. Post-hoc video analysis was employed to calculate COD speed. No significant interaction between the direction of movement (towards or against the throwing arm) and technique was found (p=.09). However, a significant main effect of direction (p<.001) and technique (p=.013) was observed. Results indicated a higher COD speed when moving in the direction of the throwing arm. Additionally, a significant difference was found between individual skill and split-step technique (p=.01). Overall, the findings suggest that differences in COD speed, whether towards or against the throwing arm, are not attributable to movement technique. Keywords: agility, team sports, cutting manoeuvre
DO STRESS TESTS REFLECT THE INTENSITY REACHED DURING COMPETITION IN AMATEUR MEN'S BASKETBALL?
In recent years, stress tests have emerged as one of the best ways to assess fitness and health of athletes. However, there is some controversy as to their ability to replicate the actual physiological needs generated during competition. The aim of the study was to compare the levels of various physiological variables measured during laboratory stress tests with those observed during competition. Heart rate, blood lactate, blood pressure, rate of perceived effort and stress level were analysed in ten amateur male basketball players, during three maximal laboratory tests (TREADMILL, CYCLE and Wingate test), and in five official competition games. The level of significance for the study was set at p≤.05. Statistically significant differences between the physiological needs of competitive matches and those of stress tests were reported (p<.05). Furthermore, the time during which a higher HR was recorded during the competition compared to the HR obtained during the stress tests was calculated. This time was 12.36 ± 9.21% of the Live Time (LT) on TREADMILL, 35.04 ± 11.78% of the LT on CYCLE and 63.75 ± 11.57% of the LT on Wingate. The results suggest that laboratory stress tests do not reproduce the physiological requirements of amateur basketball players during competition. Key words: amateur basketball, stress testing, perceived effort, intensity, physiological needs