Exploring Private Label Perception through Projective Techniques: Insights for Retail Brand Strategy and Business Performance
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22598/pi-be/2025.2.39250Keywords:
private labels, projective techniques, word association, sentence completion, consumer perception, retail brand strategyAbstract
Purpose: This study uses projective techniques to explore how consumers perceive private labels and provides retailers with actionable findings for developing successful private label strategies. Design/Methodology: The research employed a qualitative design using two projective techniques, word association and a combined sentence completion and role-playing task, on a sample of 98 graduate students from the University of Zagreb. Findings: Projective techniques help uncover how consumers evaluate private labels by using a rational risk–reward analysis based on price and quality. Spontaneous associations confirm that price and affordability remain the primary mental triggers, but the decision to purchase is a value-driven substitution, frequently rationalized as receiving “equal quality at a lower price”. The study establishes a strong link between private labels and the retailer’s identity. Practical Implications: From a managerial perspective, the results indicate that retailers must move beyond simple low-price positioning and focus on communicating superior value and tangible savings. Managers should address quality polarization by actively improving product quality, cooperating with local suppliers, and using explicit quality-assurance claims to mitigate perceived risk. At the same time, they should recognize that confidence in private labels is fundamentally tied to the retailer’s image. Originality/Value: What is new in this study is the use of projective techniques in this context, which leads to several specific implications for retailers.
References
Baltas, G. (1997). Determinants of store brand choice: A behavioral analysis. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 6(5), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1108/10610429710179480
Bonfrer, A., & Chintagunta, P. K. (2004). Store brands: Who buys them and what hap-pens to retail prices when they are introduced? Review of Industrial Organization, 24, 195–218. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:REIO.0000033352.19694.4a
Bronnenberg, B. J., Dubé, J.-P., & Sanders, R. E. (2020). Consumer misinformation and the brand premium: A private label blind taste test. Marketing Science, 39(2), 382–406. https://doi.org/10.1287/mksc.2019.1189
Burton, S., Lichtenstein, D. R., Netemeyer, R. G., & Garretson, J. A. (1998). A scale for measuring attitude toward private label products and an examination of its psycho-logical and behavioral correlates. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 26(4), 293–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070398264003
Campos, A. C., Nascimento, T. B., Oliveira, F. H., Vilas Boas, L. D., & Rezende, D. C. (2020). "Before alone or (well) accompanied"? The use of projective marketing techniques. The Qualitative Report, 25(2), 471–486. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2020.4181
Chaniotakis, I. E., Lymperopoulos, C., & Soureli, M. (2009). A research model for con-sumers' intention of buying private label frozen vegetables. Journal of Food Prod-ucts Marketing, 15, 152–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/10454440802317006
Cuneo, A., Milberg, S. J., Alarcon-del-Amo, M. C., & Lopez-Belbeze, P. (2019). Private label and manufacturer brand choice in a new competitive reality: Strategic direc-tions and the future of brands. European Management Journal, 37(1), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2018.05.003
de Alcântara, N. E., Tavares Filho, E. R., Pimentel, T. C., Pagani, M. M., Mársico, E. T., da Cruz, A. G., & Esmerino, E. A. (2024). Use of distinct projective techniques in inves-tigating participants' perception of a clean label dairy product. Journal of Sensory Studies, 39(4), e12935. https://doi.org/10.1111/joss.12935
DelVecchio, D. (2001). Consumer perceptions of private label quality: the role of product category characteristics and consumer use of heuristics, Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 8(5), 239-249. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-6989(00)00030-8
Dimofte, C. V. (2010). Implicit measures of consumer cognition: A review. Psychology and Marketing, 27(10), 921–937. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20366
Doherty, S., & Nelson, R. (2010). Using projective techniques to tap into consumers' feelings, perceptions and attitudes: Getting an honest opinion. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 34, 400–404. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00880.x
Durmaz, G., Melewar, T. C., Dennis, C., Dilmperi, A. (2024). motional value and brand attachment towards private label brands: The influence on value cocreation behav-iour and customer engagement. In J. C. Gázquez-Abad, N. Occhiocupo, & J. L. Ruiz-Real (Eds.), Advances in national brand and private label marketing (pp. 29–35). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-69192-8_3
Ebrahim, R., Ghoneim, A., Irani, Z., & Fan, Y. (2016). A brand preference and repurchase intention model: The role of consumer experience. Journal of Marketing Manage-ment, 32(13–14), 1230–1259. https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2016.1150322
Eldesouky, A., Pulido, A. F., & Mesias, F. J. (2015). The role of packaging and presenta-tion format in consumers’ preferences for food: An application of projective tech-niques. Journal of Sensory Studies, 30(5), 360–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/joss.12162
Esmerino, E. A., Ferraz, J. P., Tavares Filho, E. R., Pinto, L. P. F., Freitas, M. Q., Cruz, A. G., & Bolini, H. M. A. (2017). Consumers' perceptions toward three different fermented dairy products. Journal of Dairy Science, 100(11), 8849–8860. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2016-12533
Fisher, R. J. (1993). Social desirability bias and the validity of indirect questioning. Jour-nal of Consumer Research, 20(2), 303–315. https://doi.org/10.1086/209351
Fuduric, M., Varga, A., Horvat, S., & Skare, V. (2022). The ways we perceive: A compara-tive analysis of manufacturer brands and private labels using implicit and explicit measures. Journal of Business Research, 142, 221–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.12.033
Gambaro, G. (2018). Projective techniques to study consumer perception of food. Cur-rent Opinion in Food Science, 21, 46–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2018.05.004
Garretson, J. A., Fisher, D., & Burton, S. (2002). Antecedents of private label attitude and national brand promotion attitude: Similarities and differences. Journal of Retailing, 78, 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4359(02)00071-4
Gielens, K., Dekimpe, M. G., Mukherjee, A., & Tuli, K. (2023). The future of private-label markets: A global convergence approach. International Journal of Research in Mar-keting, 40(1), 248–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2022.07.006
Gielens, K., Geyskens, I., & Dekimpe, M. G. (2025). The brandification of private labels: Beyond budget. Tilburg University Research Portal. https://repository.tilburguniversity.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/9b757483-9daf-4b81-992c-85224ba338f9/content
Gielens, K., Ma, Y., Namin, A., Sethuraman, R., Smith, R. J., Bachtel, R. C., & Jervis, S. (2021). The future of private labels: Towards a smart private label strategy. Journal of Retailing, 97(1), 99–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2020.10.007
Halstead, D., & Ward, C. B. (1995). Assessing the vulnerability of private label brands. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 4(3), 38–48. https://doi.org/10.1108/10610429510097636
Heuer, K., Rinck, M., Becker, E.S. (2007). Avoidance of emotional facial expressions in social anxiety: The Approach–Avoidance Task. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45 (12), 2990-3001, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.08.010
Horvat, S., Komarac, T., & Ozretić Došen, Đ. (2021) Perceived Private Label Authentici-ty: A Two-Study Analysis. Market-Tržište, 33(SI), 47-66, https://doi.org/10.22598/mt/2021.33.spec-issue.47
Hussey, M., & Duncombe, N. (1999). Projecting the right image: Using projective tech-niques to measure brand image. Qualitative Market Research: An International Jour-nal, 2(1), 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1108/13522759910251918
Keller, K. O., Dekimpe, M. G., & Geyskens, I. (2022). Adding budget and premium private labels to standard private labels. Journal of Retailing, 98(1), 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2022.02.004
Khan, D., Pich, C., & Spry, L. (2023). The effective nature of projective techniques in political brand image research. International Journal of Market Research, 66(1), 115–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/14707853231220301
Kilian, T., Walsh, G., Buxel, H. (2008). Measurement of Attitude Toward Private Labels: A Replication and Extension. In: Swoboda, B., Morschett, D., Rudolph, T., Schnedlitz, P., Schramm-Klein, H. (Eds.), European Retail Research. Gabler Verlag, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-8349-8099-1_4
Kobuszewski Volles, B., Van Kerckhove, A., Geuens, M. (2023). Triggering brand switch-ing in online stores: The effectiveness of recommendations for private labels versus national brands, Journal of Business Research, 164, 114020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.114020
Liu, T.-C., & Wang, C.-Y. (2008). Factors affecting attitudes toward private labels and promoted brands. Journal of Marketing Management, 24(3–4), 283–298. https://doi.org/10.1362/026725708X306103
McKinsey & Company. (2023). The power of private-label brands in distribution. Re-trieved Jun 25, 2025, from https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/retail/our-insights/the-power-of-private-label-brands-in-distribution
Mesías, F. J., & Escribano, M. (2018). Chapter 4 – Projective techniques. In G. Ares & P. Varela (Eds.), Methods in Consumer Research, Volume 1 (pp. 79–102). Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102089-0.00004-2
Nenycz-Thiel, M., & Romaniuk, J. (2009). Perceptual categorization of private labels and national brands. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 18(4), 251–261. https://doi.org/10.1108/10610420910972774
Ndlovu, S. G. (2024). Private label brands vs national brands: New battle fronts and future competition. Cogent Business & Management, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2321877
NielsenIQ. (2024). The rise of private labels: A global perspective on growth and con-sumer trends. Retrieved Jun 26, 2025, from https://nielseniq.com/global/en/insights/analysis/2024/the-rise-of-private-labels-a-global-perspective-on-growth-and-consumer-trends/
PLMA. (2024). European retailer & manufacturer survey 2024 report. Private Label Manufacturers Association. Retrieved Jun 25, 2025, from https://www.plmainternational.com/d/2024/PLMA_European_Retailer_and_Manufacturer_Survey_2024_Report.pdf
Raju, J. S., Sethuraman, R., & Dhar, S. K. (1995). The introduction and performance of store brands. Management Science, 41(6), 957–978. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.41.6.957
Rezaei, S. (2021). Beyond explicit measures in marketing research: Methods, theoretical models, and applications. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 61, 102545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2021.102545
Rossi, P., Borges, A., & Bakpayev, M. (2015). Private labels versus national brands: The effects of branding on sensory perceptions and purchase intentions. Journal of Re-tailing and Consumer Services, 27, 74–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2015.07.006
Sandes, M. H. E., Farias, R. A. S., & dos Santos, J. A. S. (2016). Private labels and retail: A bibliometric study on empirical researches. International Journal of Business Admin-istration, 7(5), 78–92. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijba.v7n5p78
Sansone, M., Colamatteo, A., & Pagnanelli, M. A. (2018). A Bibliometric Analysis of the Private Label Literature. In: Martínez-López, F., Gázquez-Abad, J., & Chernev, A. (Eds.), Advances in National Brand and Private Label Marketing. Springer Proceed-ings in Business and Economics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92084-9_19
Sass, C. A. B., Kuriya, S., da Silva, G. V., Silva, H. L. A., da Cruz, A. G., Esmerino, E. A., & Freitas, M. Q. (2018). Completion task to uncover consumer perception: A case study using distinct types of hens’ eggs. Poultry Science, 97(7), 2591–2599. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps/pey103
Sass, C. A. B., Pimentel, T. C., Guimarães, J. T., Silva, R., Pagani, M. M., Silva, M. C., Quei-roz, M. F., Cruz, A. G., & Esmerino, E. A. (2021). How buyer-focused projective tech-niques can help to gain insights into consumer perceptions about different types of eggs. Food Research International, 144, 110320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110320
Scott Morton, F., & Zettelmeyer, F. (2004). The strategic positioning of store brands in retailer-manufacturer negotiations. Review of Industrial Organization, 24, 161–194. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:REIO.0000033350.25229.d6
Semeijn, J., van Riel, A. C. R., & Ambrosini, A. B. (2004). Consumer evaluations of store brands: Effects of store image and product attributes. Journal of Retailing and Con-sumer Services, 11, 247–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-6989(03)00051-1
Spry, L., & Pich, C. (2021). Enhancing data collection methods with qualitative projec-tive techniques. International Journal of Market Research, 63(2), 177–200. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470785320943045
Steenkamp, J. B. E. M. (2024). What is holding private label back in the United States and in emerging markets?. Journal of Retailing, 100(1), 56-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2023.11.002
Stoppacher, L., Foscht, T., Eisingerich, A. B., & Schloffer, J. (2024). Always on your mind? – investigating consideration sets and private labels at the retailer and category level. The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Re-search, 34(5), 646–668. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593969.2024.2345122
Sutton-Brady, C., Taylor, T., & Kamvounias, P. (2017). Private label brands: A relation-ship perspective. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 32(8), 1051–1061. https://doi.org/10.1108/JBIM-03-2015-0051
Sweeney, J. C., & Soutar, G. N. (2001). Consumer perceived value: The development of a multiple item scale. Journal of Retailing, 77, 203–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4359(01)00041-0
Valaskova, K., Kliestikova, J., & Krizanova, A. (2018). Consumer perception of private label products: An empirical research. Journal of Competitiveness, 10(3), 149–163. https://doi.org/10.7441/joc.2018.03.10
Verhoef, P. C., Nijssen, E. J., & Sloot, L. M. (2002). Strategic reactions of national brand manufacturers towards private labels: An empirical study in The Netherlands. Eu-ropean Journal of Marketing, 36(11–12), 1309–1326. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090560210445191
Vranešević, T. (2014). Tržišna istraživanja u poslovnom upravljanju [Marketing re-search in business management]. Accent Press.
Vranešević, T. (2016). Upravljanje markama [Brand management]. Accent Press.
Wang, H. D., Kalwani, M. U., & Akçura, T. (2007). A Bayesian multivariate Poisson re-gression model of cross-category store brand behavior. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 14, 369–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2007.02.004
Wileman, A., & Jary, M. (1997). Retail power plays: From trading to brand leadership. Macmillan Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-14378-8
Wörfel, P. (2021). Unravelling the intellectual discourse of implicit consumer cognition: A bibliometric review. Journal of Retailing & Consumer Services, 61, 101960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.101960
Zeithaml, V. A. (1988). Consumer perceptions of price, quality, and value: A means-end model and synthesis of evidence. Journal of Marketing, 52(3), 2–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224298805200302
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Sandra Horvat
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
All articles are published under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0). This license permits: Non-commercial use, sharing, and reproduction in any medium, proper attribution to the original authors and source.
Authors retain full copyright of their work while granting the journal the right of first publication.
The journal is published by the Faculty of Economics & Business, University of Zagreb, which also acts as the copyright holder.
© The Author(s). Published by Poslovna izvrsnost – Business Excellence.
